Unit 8 Design Decisions: How can I make better design decisions?

1. Factor of Safety
- used to offset the potential effects of unknown variables by adding new elements to its construction or system to prevent system failure.
- A new designs must have large factors of safety to overcome the large number of unknown.

Example:
There is a factor of safety in a power bank. As you can see there are two USB ports, one with 1.5A and another 2.1A which is suppose to indicate which port is suppose to be used on what gadget. 1.5A are used to charge phones while 2.1A are usually for bigger gadgets like an ipad. However, it will not cause any incident even if you attach the gadgets to the wrong port.

2. Redundancy
- The use of more elements in a design to maintain its performance if one or more elements fail to perform.
- Four types of redundancy
a) Diverse redundancy - One function has many elements of different types.

From the picture above, we can see that the laptop is having diverse redundancy where it has two source of power supply to the laptop computer. The power source on the left, is the A/C power source for the laptop and on the laptop itself, it has a dry cell battery for the power supply. 

b) Homogenous redundancy - multiple elements of a single type

The badminton racket is made up of multiple elements. So if one of the element has break, then the racket cannot been used already.

c) Active redundancy - Provide several independent supports to a element

From the picture above, The tyre needs four screws to support. However, the car still can function even if one of the screw of the tyre is missing. 

d) Passive redundancy -  Provide support when active redundancy fails

If one of the strap of the handbag has break, the other strip still can support the handbag.

3. Flexibility-Usability Tradeoff
- the usability of a system decreases as flexibility of a system increases
- flexible design perform more functions but less efficiently because it more complex and difficult to use.

Example: 

The brown color car remote control has more function but it more complex (flexibility increase, usability decrease)  when compare to the grey color car remote control.

4. Satisficing
- It is better to achieve a satisfying design rather than an optimal design
- it is a type of cognitive heuristic that quickly meet human needs.

Example: 

The example above shows the website designer has create satisficing function for user. This is a online shopping store where the sorting function of the store shows satisficing, where user could click on the function and quickly determine the item they want to satisfy their needs. It may not show the best, but it could solve the problem by satisfying user needs.

5. Ockham's Razor
- simplicity is preferred to complexity in a design
- unnecessary elements decrease design's efficiency and have probability to creates problems

Example:

In this phone screen interface, it shows simplicity where it cut off unnecessary design and only focus on a few main function that user always use and with label below each icon. It is simple and easy to access. 

6. Form Follows Function
- can be interpreted in 2 ways
a) descriptive interpretation - based on the belief that form follows function in nature. The outlook of an object should be primarily based on its intended function.
b) prescriptive interpretation - functional consideration is primary consideration while aesthetic consideration is second consideration in a design

Example:
This clothes hanger does not has high aesthetic value but it does fulfill the function that it was designed for. Hence, it shows form follow function.

Unit 7 Design and Appeal: How can I increase the appeal of a design?

1. Aesthetic-Usability Effect

The aesthetic usability effect defines that a more attractive product has a high tendency to be
perceived as easier to use by user as compared to the less attractive ones although both has the       same level of usability. Generally, people think well designed things functions better and is of higher quality.

A product with high aesthetic usability effect is not only perceived to be easily used but also higher chances of being use. User may even overlook the feature deficiency of an attractive product just so they can use the particular product compared to the less aesthetic one.

The top hanger has a higher chance to be perceived as easier to use compared to the lower hanger due to its aesthetic design.

2. Archetypes

Archetypes are also said to be an universally understood patterns of theme or visual symbols. It could be of a person, an object or a concept. Designs that are able to form and archetype are usually successful. Archetypes works at an unconscious and emotional level. Hence, they are effective when traditional communication (language) cannot be conducted. Usually the archetypes created tells a story about the company or the product making it easier for the audience to perceive and remember.There are 12 types of archetypes:
1) The Innocent -to be happy (Coca-Cola, McDonald’s, Ben & Jerry’s)
2) The Regular Guy/ Girl-to belong (IKEA, Wendy’s, Walmart)
3) The Explorer- to experience a better, more authentic, more fulfilling life (Air Asia,Starbucks)
4) The Sage-to use intelligence and analysis to understand the world (CNN,The New York Times)
5) The Hero-expert mastery in a way that improves the world (Nike, Fed Ex)
6) The Outlaw-to overturn what is not working ( Harley-Davidson, Apple)
7) The Magician-to make dreams come true (New York Skin Solution, SKII)
8)The Jester-to have a great time and lighten up the world (Fanta, Pepsi)
9) The Caregiver-to help others (Volvo, Johnson & Johnson)
10) The Creator-to realize a vision (Lego, Kodak, and Adobe)
11) The Ruler-create a prosperous, successful family or community ( Intel, Mercedes-Benz)
12) The Lover-to be in a relationship with people; to have beautiful experiences and be                    
                         surrounded (Herbal Essences, Häägen-Dazs,  Jaguar)

Example: Lego has an archetype as the creator

Lego has always show the archetype creator as it enables the creation of the reality using Lego bricks.

The picture shows a model of a plane using Lego bricks.

3. Entry Point
The first impression of an environment and system plays an important role that affects our perception and attitude. This impression is formed at the entry point of the environment
There are 3 key elements for good entry point. To maximize our entry point, it should have minimal barriers, clear points of prospects and outstanding progressive lures
(a) minimal barriers
-Barriers should not block the entry points, we should minimize the possibility of blocking the entry point of the environment
(b) points of prospects
-Provide clear instructions and have a clear view of orientation cues of the environment
(c) progressive lures
-Things or points that could attract or lure people through the entry point.

Example:

The web designer of this website has created the website of Daniel Wellington with a clear entry point of its brand and with minimal barriers. The points of prospects shows on the menu tab of the website where user could quickly identify the toolbar and browse the store.

4. Mimicry
Referring to copying a familiar objects, organisms or environment to improve in designing of objects. There are three types of mimicry,
(i) Surface mimicry
- making a design look like something similar. When a design is created through mimic, it function will always remain the same

Example:

For example in the edit post section of blogger website, it use the mimicry function on the edit post toolbar where user could quickly identify the function of the icon even without descriptions. 

(ii) Behavioral mimicry
-making a design act like something similar. Normally it is used to improve likeability

 For example, this car machine in the arcade, the machine mimic the function of the car to move around to let children have car moving experience.

(iii)Functional mimicry
-making a design work like something similar, normally it is used to solve mechanical and structural problems

for example this toy helicopter. The main idea of creation of helicopter was actually a mimicry from dragonfly. The propeller of the helicopter mimic the wings of a dragonfly.

5. Colour
Colour is used in design because it can make the design more visual interesting, attract attention and indicate meaning.
The guidelines for use of colour in design:
a. Number of colours
b. Color Combinations
c. Saturation
d. Symbolism

Example:

The function of the green colour button is to unlock the car and the different colour of traffic light also indicated different function

6. Exposure Effect
A phenomenon that cause people to feel positively or neutral when stimuli are repeated presented. The more we exposure to a stimulus, the more we will tend to like it because of familiarity.

Example:

McDonald's becomes very popular because it exposed repeatedly through television and networks. Thus people will tend to like it more.

Unit 6 Design and Usability | How can I enhance the usability of a design?

1. Constraint
A method of limiting the actions that can be performed on a design.
2 types of constraint
     a. Physical Constraints
-The physical properties of objects constrain possible operations, each object has physical feature.
Some examples of physical constraints like which part can be together or can't be together, objects that we can pick up or moved.

For example as the lego above, there are some parts can match to be together, and there are some part doesn't match. Moreover, it provides a limit where two lego can match together. The limit also known as constraint.

     b. Psychological constraints
-In this society, there are often limitation in social behaviour of different cultures. behavior is determined by the combination of internal knowledge and external information and constraints

From the picture above, when we saw this do not litter signboard, we automatically will avoid to do this action and find the bin provided in this place.

2. Cost Benefit
-When a design is designed, the cost benefit of the product is always calculated to determine whether  the benefit value is higher than the cost value or vice-versa and also how does the cost benefit of the product affects user.

For example this product, it has a very high cost, but there are people who will buy it for the sake of its cost benefit. The user will feel satisfy when they go out with this handbag because it is branded. It makes the user feel superior with it. 

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3. Visibility
The usability of a system is improved when its status and methods of use are clearly visible. The actions that a user can perform on a device should be obvious by just looking at the device itself.

Example: The function of the remote control and the keyboard can be determine easily because it has all the labels of the function on the button. Therefore, the usability of the design is improve due to its visibility

4. Progressive Disclosure
A strategy for managing information complexity in which only display the necessary or requested information instead of display all information and thus make the user confused or frustrated. This strategy is to prevent the information overload.

The system will hide the unnecessary information and the extra information will only display when you click it.

5. Iconic Representation
The use of pictorial images to make actions, objects, and concepts in a display easier to find, recognize and remember. The image is use to improve the recognition and recall of signs and control.
4 types of iconic representation:
     a. Similar icons - Images that visually analogous to an action, object or concept.

     b. Example icons - Images that commonly associated with action, object or concept.

     c. Symbolic icons - Images that represent an action, object or concept at higher level of abstraction.

Danger                WIFI

     d. Arbitrary icons - Image that we already learned and the image has no relationship to the action, object or concept. Arbitrary image has become standard as it already used for a long period of time.

6. Wayfinding
The process of using spatial and environmental information to navigate to a destination which involved 4 stages:
     a. Orientation - determine one's location relative to nearby objects and the destination
     b. Route Decision - make decision to choose the route in order to get to the destination
     c. Route Monitoring - monitor the route that had been chosen to confirm it is leading to the correct destination
     d. Destination Recognition - recognize the destination

For example, on the picture above, it shows the floor map of FSKPM, it has the orientation where it shows us where we are, provided with description for each label to enable user to make their route decision. User are also easily monitor their route with this map.

Unit 5 Design and Learning | How can I help people learn from a design?

1. Chunking
 -Chunking is a technique of combining information into limited number of units to increase recall       performance and retain information.
Example:

Floor directory of  FSKPM, UNIMAS

The floor directory has chunk the information of the rooms at FSKPM into different parts according to the level of floor.

2. Classical Conditioning
-It is a learning process that occurs between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that influences our behaviour.

Example: From the picture above, the restaurant is showing the menu to the customer on the banner. The banner has all the food pictures which act as an environmental stimulus when customer saw the food, they will feel hungry and looks delicious and so, they went in the restaurant. 

3. Serial Position Effect
-Serial position effect is looking at how the arrangement of objects and its impact towards our memory. There are mainly two type, primacy effect and recency effect, where people remember the first item and the last item the most.

from the picture above we could see that every time when we click on the tab of a document file, it always start with save button and end with an exit button. 

4. Picture Superiority Effect
-Pictures are more easily to recognized and recalled than words.
Example:

Use picture to explain the rules in Faculty is more easy to attract attention instead of using the words.

5. Von Restorff Effect
- Von Restorff Effect is where we can easily differentiate an object than the others because it stands out than the other object. It is also known as isolation effect.

From the picture above, we could easily detect the mouse because its orange colour stands out among all the green colour.

6. Forgiveness
-Design should help people to avoid errors and minimize the negative consequences of errors when they do occur
a. Good Affordances - physical characteristics of the design that influence its correct use

The blue plastic adapter enables user to plug in the two-pin socket into the three-pin plug safely.

The card holder is designed with four edges that protrude inwards to give a tighter grip to the card and prevent it from falling out.

b. Reversibility of Actions - actions can be reversed if an error occurs

The undo button functions to enable user to go back to the previous stage. User will not lose his work after he make a mistake.

c. Safety Nets - device or process that minimizes the negative consequences of a catastrophic error or failure. The main electric fuse in every homes is designed to ensure safety. If any appliances cause short circuit, the main fuse will trip stopping electric current that may potentially start a fire.

d. Conformation - verification of intent that is required before critical actions are allowed

The computer system will ask the conformation from the user before delete the file. This is to avoid the user from accidentally delete the important documents.

e. Warnings - signs, prompts or alarms used to warn of imminent danger

When the battery of a laptop is low, the system will warn the user to either shut down or charge the laptop.

f. Help - information that assists in basic operations, troubleshooting and error recovery

If user face any problem, they can visit "window help and support" system to troubleshoot the problems and find the solutions.

7. Operant Conditioning
 - A form of learning which involved either positive (reward) or negative reinforcement (punishment). This technique is used to modify behavior by reinforcing desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired behaviors.
Positive reinforcement - increase the probability of a behavior to being repeated
Negative reinforcement - decrease the probability of a behavior to being repeated

Example: Loyalty card

Customers can get reward points when they purchase at the particular shop and the points can use to get free gift or discount from the particular shop. So, the customers will tend to spend more in order to get more reward points (positive reinforcement).

Unit 4 Design and Perception: How can I influence the way a design is perceived?

1. Gestalt Principles of Perception
There are 6 Gestalt Principles.

1.The Gestalt Figure/Ground Relationship

This principle states that the eye differentiates an object from its background. An object, a form or a shape is naturally perceived as a figure (object) , while the area is perceived as a ground( background).

As seen in the pictures above, we are able to perceive the alphabets SFI because we could differentiate the shapes of the alphabets from the green background.

2.Similarity

When objects looks similar to one another, they are usually perceived as a group or pattern.

In the picture above, we could see that there are different sizes of coins being traced on a paper. Due to the similar shape, we could perceive them as a group which forms a pattern of a flower.

3. Continuation

When the the eye perceive one object and continues to move through to another object, it is known as continuation.

On the word SEASONS, we could see the application of principle of continuation whereby our eyes are directed to see the leaf around the letter "O" as we read the word SEASON.

4. Closure

When a space is not completely enclosed or when an object is incomplete, people will still be able to perceive the whole by filling in  the missing information. 

Although the horse is not completely outlined, we could still figure out that it is a horse by filling in the missing information.

5. Proximity

When objects are placed close together, they will be seen as belonging together.

We could see that there are two category of shampoo here due to the gap in between them. Those that are placed closer together are seen to be in one group.

6. Law of Common Fate

Grouping of objects that shares a common motion or have a common destination. 

The law of common fate enables us to distinguish that the center box is different from the others as all the others has a common characteristic.

2. Orientation Sensitivity
Orientation sensitivity refers to visual processing of line orientations. There are certain orientations that is more quickly and easily processed than others.

With that, it also explains why our standard analogue clock can be quickly interpreted. The numbers positioned at 30 degree increments around analogue clocks corresponds to minimum recommendation for easy detection. Differences which are less than 30 degrees are can be much more difficult to detect and interpret.

Orientation sensitivity is affected by two specific phenomena which are oblique effects and pop-out effects.

a)Oblique effects

Occurs when we find it much easier to perceive and interpret line orientations that are close to vertical or horizontal than ones that are oblique.

b)Pop-out effect

Occur when some elements of a display 'pop out' and are easily and quickly detected.

3. Consistency

Consistency means the usability of a system is improved when similar parts are expressed in similar ways. Consistency enables people to transfer their prior knowledge to new contexts so that they can learn new things quickly. 

Example: player button symbol

People are familiar to these buttons because these buttons are now used in MP3, MP4, remote control and others video or music software. As a result, they will know the function of each button.

Window Media Player

4. Proximity 

Proximity means elements that are related should be grouped together while elements that are unrelated to each other should be placed further apart.

Example: numeric keypad USB
The number is grouped together because they are related. This design enables the user to key in the data easily.

5. Threat Detection

All human are born with the innate ability to detect possible harm towards us. We are able to identify the threats around us and avoid danger to ensure we are in a safe environment.

For example,this forest gives a out a feeling of threat because we can sense the unforeseen harm that may come to us.

However, in this picture of forest, it has a clearer path where our threat stimuli will receive a lower sense of threat. The trail in the forest gives people a safer feeling.

In objects and things we encounter everyday, we can always sense the possible or potential harm that the object could give us. These objects may be in various size either small or big, some objects may not came across our mind that it will be a threat for us. For example this pen knife, it is usually used as a stationery item. However, it is also a possible weapon to harm people. People could injure themselves or harm other people with this item. 

Another example we could see threat detection from our daily life is a cup. A cup as above could possibly be a threat to us if we break it. The cup is made up of glass and it is fragile. A broken glass cup could injured us. To avoid these threats, we could replace the material of the glass into non-fragile material such as plastics, paper, and more.

6. Interference Effect

Interference effect are normally related to our memory. Throughout our learning process, we will encounter a lot of new information. However, there are some information we acquired previously and it interfere with the new information we learned. This known as interference effect. There are two types of interference effect, retroactive interference and proactive interference.

When we learn to drive a car, the tutor will use the manual car to teach. So, when people drive the auto car, it creates potentially dangerous interference because the auto car does not has clutch pedal like the manual car and thus create conflicting mental processes.